Edo, officially known as Edo State, is a state in the South-Southgeopolitical zone of the federal republic of Nigeria. As of 2022, the state was ranked as the 22nd most populous state (4,777,000) in Nigeria. The estimated state population is around 4,777,000 in 2022.[4][5] Edo State is the 22nd largest State by landmass in Nigeria.[6] The state’s capital and largest city, Benin City, is the fourth largest city in Nigeria, and the centre of the country’s rubber industry.[7][8] Created in 1991 from the former Bendel State, it is also known as the heart beat of the nation.[9] Edo State borders Kogi State to the north for 133 km and across the Niger River for 81 km to the northeast, Anambra State to the east for about four km across the Niger River, Delta State to the southeast and south for 350 km (218 miles), and Ondo State to the west.[10]
The modern borders of Edo State[11] encompasses regions that were formerly the site of various empires and kingdoms of the second dynasty formed in the 11th century AD, the Benin Empire.[12] The ancient city of Edo, the site of modern-day Benin City,[11] was home to some of the largest earthworks in the world.[13] In 1897, the British Empire conducted a punitive expedition of the region, destroying most of the ancient city of Edo and incorporating the territory into what would become the Southern Nigeria Protectorate.[14][15]
The Mid-Western Region was a division of Nigeria from 1963 to 1991, formally known as Bendel state from 1976.[20] It was formed in June 1963 from Benin and Delta provinces of the Western Region, and its capital was Benin City.[21] It was renamed a province in 1966, and in 1967 when the other provinces were split up into several states, it remained territorially intact, becoming a state.[22]
During the Nigerian Civil War, the Biafran forces invaded the new Mid-Western state, en route to Lagos, in an attempt to force a quick end to the war. While under Biafran occupation, the state was declared as the “Republic of Benin” as Nigerian forces were to retake the region.[23] The republic collapsed a day after the declaration as Nigerian troops overtook Benin City. Edo State was established on 27 August 1991 when Bendel State was split into Edo and Delta States.[24][25] The Edo people political organization is expressed in a three-tier age group system that cuts across kin groups and make age, rather than line-age affiliation, with criterion of authority.[20] Benin city itself is organized on the basis of age-grades similar to those of the villages as well as on the basis of wards and chiefs, both hereditary and non-hereditary, serving the Oba in specialised functions. The Oba is the focal point of the Benin political system and institution is based squarely on that of divine kingship.[26]
Edo state has a Tropical wet and dry or savanna climate with yearly temperature of 28.78 °C (83.8 °F) and it is -0.68% lower than Nigeria’s averages. Edo typically receives about 183.49 millimeters (7.22 inches) of precipitation and has 265.91 rainy days (72.85% of the time) annually and at an elevation of 239.16 meters (784.65 feet) above sea level.[27]
With Benin City as capital, the population of the entire state is approximately 5 million.[28] It is made up of four major ethnic groups; namely Edo (Binis), Owan, Esan and Afemai (Etsako & Akoko Edo). However, the State has a high presence of residents from across the country and the world because of its cosmopolitan tendencies. Benin City has a history of being one of the foremost destinations of Europeans during their exploration of Africa continent many centuries ago. Some of these flash points have remained enviable tourists’ attraction sites for the state.[29] The people are known for having several Edo traditional food.
The main ethnic groups in Edo State are Édo, Etsako, Esan, Owan, and Akoko Edo.[21] Some of the groups can trace their origin to Benin City, hence their dialects vary with their distance from Benin City. The Edo speaking people occupy seven out of the 18 Local Government Areas (LGAs) of the state and constitute 57.54% of the total population. Others are as follows: Esan (17.14%), Etsako (12.19%), Owan (7.43%), and Akoko Edo (5.70%).[21] There are also Igbira speaking communities in Akoko Edo, Itsekiri communities in Ikpoba-Okha, and Ijaw Izons and Urhobos in Ovia North East and South West Local Government Areas, especially in the borderlands. Also, Ika speaking communities exist in Igbanke (Ika) in Orhionmwon LGA.
Delta State is a state in the South-South geopolitical zone of Nigeria. Named after the Niger Delta—a large part of which is in the state—the state was formed from the former Bendel State, on 27 August 1991. Bordered on the north by Edo State, the east by Anambra and Rivers states, and that south by Bayelsa State while to the west is the Bight of Benin which covers about 160 kilometres of the state’s coastline. The state was initially created with 12 local government areas in 1991, but was later expanded to 19 and now has 25 local government areas. Its capital city is Asaba which is located along the River Niger on the northeastern end of the state, while the state’s economic center is the city of Warri on the southwestern coastline.
What is now Delta State has been inhabited for years by various ethnic groups, including the Isoko and Eruwa in the centre of the state; Ukwuani in the east; the Ika, Enuani, and Olukumi in the northeast; the Anioma in the northwest; and the Ijaw, Itsekiri, and Urhobo, in the southwest. In the pre-colonial period, the now-Delta State was divided into various monarchial states like the Kingdom of Warri and Agbor Kingdom before the area became a part of the British Oil Rivers Protectorate in 1884. In the early 1900s, the British incorporated the protectorate (now renamed the Niger Coast Protectorate) into the Southern Nigeria Protectorate which later amalgamated into British Nigeria. However, colonial forces did not gain permanent control of modern-day Delta State until the 1910s, due to the uprisings of the Ekumeku Movement. Notably, Delta has one of the few parts of now-Nigeria to have been under French control as the UK leased the enclave of Forcados to France from 1903 to 1930.
After independence in 1960, the area of now-Delta was a part of the post-independence Western Region until 1963 when the region was split and the area became part of the Mid-Western Region. In 1967, the Igbo-majority former Eastern Region attempted to secede as the state of Biafra and invaded the Mid-Western Region in an attempt to capture Lagos and end the war quickly; Biafran forces were halted and eventually pushed back but briefly declared the captured Mid-Western Region (including now-Delta State) as the Republic of Benin. During the occupation there were widespread hostilities between the Biafran forces and the mainly non-Igbo inhabitants of now-Delta State with Biafran forces committing atrocities against ethnic Hausa, Urhobo, and Ijaw people; similarly, upon the liberation of the Mid-West, Nigerian forces committed the Asaba massacre against ethnic Igbos in Asaba. At the war’s end and the reunification of Nigeria, the Mid-Western Region was reformed until 1976 when it was renamed Bendel State. In 1991, Bendel State was split with the north becoming Edo State and the south becoming Delta State.[8]
Economically, Delta State is based around the production of crude oil and natural gas as one of the main oil-producing states in the country.[9] Key minor industries involve agriculture as the state has substantial oil palm, yam, and cassava crops along with fishing and heliciculture. In large part due to its vast oil revenues, Delta has the fourth highestHuman Development Index in the country; however, disputes between oil companies and local communities along with years of systemic corruption have led to hostilities that are often tied to the lack of development in host communities.[10][11]
Delta State covers a landmass of about 18,050 km2 (6,970 sq mi), of which more than 60% is land. The state lies approximately between 5°00′ and 6°45′ E and 5°00′ and 6°30′ N.[12] It is geographically located in Nigeria’s Midwest, bounded in the north and west by Edo State for 350 km (218 miles), the east by Anambra, and Rivers States for about 93 km and about 50 km respectively, southeast by Bayelsa State across the Niger River for 17 km and the Forçados River for 198 km,[13] and on the southern extreme is the Bight of Benin which covers about 160 kilometres of the state’s coastline. Delta State is generally low-lying without any remarkable hills. The state has a wide coastal belt inter-laced with rivulets and streams, which form part of the Niger Delta.[14][15][16]
An important characteristic of the Climate of Delta State is flooding.[17] The ecological attributes of Delta State also include heavy rainfall, which makes the state, like other states in the Niger-Delta Nigeria to be regarded as lowland rainforest, freshwater swamp and mangrove swamp. Delta State has a mean rainfall of 36.9 mm, as well as an increase in rainfall which in the year 2015 resulted in inundation of farmlands in the state.[18] 2015 was also the year the state had the highest rainfall, amounting to 3183.6 mm. In the year 2007, the state had the lowest rainfall over the 11-year period, amounting to an annual rainfall of 2030.58 mm. While January has the lowest rainfall in the state, in July, rainfall is very high at 423.2 mm.[18]
Delta State was defined out of the former Bendel State on 27 August 1991.[19] The state was actualized following agitations for the realization of a separate distinct state by the peoples of the old Delta Province.[20] There was yet another state request proposed as “Anioma State[21]” comprising the Asaba and Agbor Divisions of the old Midwest region.[20] The then Military President, Gen. Ibrahim Babangida, recognized Delta state but chose “Asaba” a prominent town within the “Northwestern Lower Niger” as capital city.[20] The proposed capital was a virgin land in the heart of the two constituent divisions that constitutes the Northwestern Lower Niger.[20] Delta state was once integrated in the Mid Western state from 1963 to 1976 and later Bendel state, from 1976 to 1991. The name “Bendel” (Ben-Del) was coined from the old Benin and Delta Provinces of Western Region-Delta to reflect the integration of Benin and Delta provinces.[22]
The electoral system of each state is selected using a modified two-round system. To be elected in the first round, a candidate must receive the plurality of the vote and over 25% of the vote in at least two-thirds of the State local government Areas. If no candidate passes a threshold, a second round will be held between the top candidate and the next candidate to have received a plurality of votes in the highest number of local government Areas.[23]
The Urhobo-Isoko are basically the same people and are the most predominant people inhabiting the state[20] and currently about 3.3 million spanning across 13 local government areas, followed by Ukwuani, Ika and Aniocha-Oshimili (Igboid/Igbo) people of Delta State with a population of about 1.8 million spanning across 9 Local government areas who are sometimes referred to as the Anioma people.[24][25][20] The Itsekiri speak a language very closely related to Yoruba but have been culturally influenced by the Edo from neighbouring Edo state, as well as the Urhobo, and Ijaw.[20]
The Okpe is a dialect of the Urhobo language. The Okpe people occupy two local government areas (Sapele and Okpe) in Delta Central.
The Ijaws are a group of people related to the predominant people of neighbouring Bayelsa State,[26] while the Olukumi are becoming culturally and linguistically extinct,[27] due to acculturation and assimilation.[citation needed]
A2 as the Elele-Alimini-Patani East-West Rd across the Forçados River from Bayelsa State by the 850 m bridge (2014) at Patani and north via Warri to Benin City,
Delta State has some historical, cultural and socio-political tourist centres that attract visitors from around the globe. Some of these sites of tourism include:[20]
The Nana’s Palace built by Chief Nana Olomu of Ebrohim. He was a powerful 19th-century indigenous entrepreneur who traded with the British. The relationship eventually turned sour. Later, he surrendered (not without putting up a fight) and was exiled to Ghana. His personal effects are housed in this grand palace.[72][73]
The River Ethiope which is reputed to be the deepest inland waterway in Africa (at 176 km). Its source is at the foot of a giant silk-cotton tree at Umuaja in Ukwuani Local Government Area of the state and flows through seven Local Government Areas in the State. It is a place of worship for Olokun traditional religion and also a common site for faithful of the Igbe Religious Movement.[74]
The Araya Bible Site which houses a copy of the Holy Bible. It is believed that the bible descended to this spot miraculously from heaven around August 1914. The bible dropped on rain-soaked yam and it didn’t get wet. The site now attracts thousands of Christians yearly.[75]
Demas Nwoko Edifice which was built using traditional materials, designs and construction techniques of the Igbo civilization by Demas Nwoko, an architect, builder and artist of international repute from Idumuje-Ugboko, in Aniocha North Local Government Area, Delta State.[76]
The Mungo Park House which is now the site of the National Museum, Asaba. The house was constructed by the Royal Niger Company (RNC) in 1886 and was used as a colonial administrative headquarters, a military house, the colonial administrative divisional headquarters, the RNC Constabulary building, and the seat of the Urban District Council at different times.[77]
The Abraka Turf and Country Club, Abraka features a horse club where an international polo tournament is held every year during Easter.[78]
The Niger Bridge which connects Delta State (by extension, western Nigeria) to the Eastern part of Nigeria. It is a beauty to behold. It was completed in 1965 and cost £5 million. It was damaged during the Civil War but later repaired.[79]
Lander Brothers Anchorage, Asaba which was built in memory of early British explorers. The complex has a museum, a graveyard, and many artworks and writings. It houses a replica of one of the boats that was used by the brothers.[citation needed]
Falcorp Mangrove Park
Warri Kingdom Royal Cemetery which is a 512-year-old burial ground and serves as the resting place of past rulers of the Warri kingdom. A tree is planted on each grave.[80]
Mungo Park House, Asaba is the first headquarters of the Royal Niger Company and Nigeria’s first political headquarters in 1900.[72]
Kwale Game Reserve is situated in the low coastal zone of Delta State, characterized by rainforest vegetation and deltaic swamps. It is rich in reptiles and water-associated animals, particularly red river hog, sitatunga and a variety of brackish, marine and freshwater fish species.[72]
Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, economist and international development expert, Boards of Standard Chartered Bank, Twitter, Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization, and the African Risk Capacity[131]
Abel Ubeku, first black managing director of Guinness Nigeria Plc[152]
Patrick Utomi, a Nigerian professor of political economy and management expert, Fellow of the Institute of Management Consultants of Nigeria and a former presidential candidate[153]
Modern-day Cross River state has been inhabited by several ethnic groups for hundreds of years, primarily the Efik of the riverside south and Calabar; the Ekoi (Ejagham) of the inland south; the Akunakuna, Boki, Bahumono, and Yakö (Yakurr) of the central region; and the Bekwarra, Ogoja, Bette, Igede, Ukelle (Kukele) of the northern region. In the pre-colonial period, what is now Cross River state was divided between its ethnic groups with some joining the Aro Confederacy, while the Efik founded the Akwa Akpa (Old Calabar) city-state.[4] The latter become a British protectorate in 1884, as the capital of the Oil Rivers Protectorate; but it was in the early 1900s that the Britons gained formal control of the entire area. Around the same time, the protectorate (now renamed the Niger Coast Protectorate) was incorporated into the Southern Nigeria Protectorate, which later merged into British Nigeria.[11] After the merger, much of the modern-day Cross River state has become a center of anti-colonial resistance during the Women’s War and trade, through the international seaport at Calabar.[12][13]
After independence in 1960, the area now regarded as Cross River state was a part of the post-independence Eastern Region until 1967, when the region was split and the area became part of the South-Eastern state. Less than two months afterwards, the Igbo-majority of the former Eastern Region attempted to secede as the state of Biafra; in the three-year long Nigerian Civil War. Calabar and its port was hard-fought over in Operation Tiger Claw, while the people from Cross River state were persecuted by the Biafran forces as they were mainly non-Igbos.[14] At the war’s end and the reunification of Nigeria, the South-Eastern state was reformed until 1976, when it was renamed Cross River state.[15] Eleven years later, Cross River state was divided with western Cross River being broken off to form the new Akwa Ibom state.[5] The state formerly contained the oil-producing Bakassi Peninsula, but it was ceded to Cameroon under the terms of the Greentree Agreement.[16]
The state has many governors and administrators including Udoakaha J. Esuene, Paul Omu, Tunde Elegbede, Clement Isong, Donald Etiebet, Daniel Archibong, Ibim Princewill, Ernest Attah, Clement Ebri, Ibrahim Kefas, Gregory Agboneni, Umar Faoruk Ahmed, Christopher Osondu, Donald Duke, Liyel Imoke and Benedict Ayade. The current Governor is Bassey Edet Otu, who was sworn into office on 29 May 2023. He was elected for a four-year term in office under the platform of All Progressive Congress (APC).
Cross River state derives its name from the Cross River, which passes through the state.[19] It is a coastal state located in the Niger Delta region, and occupies 20,156 square kilometers. It shares boundaries with Benue state to the north for 188 km (117 miles), Ebonyi and Abia states to the west for 198 km (123 miles) and about 52 km respectively (partly across Cross River), to the east by Sud-Ouest Province in Cameroon for about 290 km (181 miles), partly across the Sankwala Mountains and the Akwayafe River, and to the south by Akwa-Ibom for about 114 km (71 miles) mostly across Cross River and the Atlantic Ocean.[20] The state is made up of 18 Local Government Area Councils.[citation needed]
Like few other Nigerian states, the climate of Cross River state is tropical. Not only this, the state is also characterised with relative humidity. The average temperature of the state is between 15°C and 30°C. However, this climatic condition is different in locations within the Cross River state such as the high plateau of Obudu, which has a record of a fall in temperature between 4°C and 10°C, as a result of the high altitude of this area.[21] The capital city of the State, Calabar, has a significant record of rainfall within the year, while the dry season has less significant effect in the state due to the depth of rainfall experienced. Based on the records presented by the Climate Data of the state, the annual rainfall of Cross River state is 3306mm (130.2 inches).[22][23]
The State is composed of several ethnic groups,[24][25] which include the Efik, the Ejagham, Yakurr, Bahumono, Bette, Yala, Igede, Ukelle and the Bekwarra among others. There are four major languages spoken in the state: English, the common language, Efik, Bekwarra, and Ejagham. The Efik language is widely spoken in Cross River State, especially in Calabar Municipality, Calabar South, Akpabuyo, Bakassi, Akampkpa, Biase, and Odukpani Local Government Areas. The Ejagham language is also widely spoken language in Cross River State.
The Efik-speaking people live mainly in the Southern senatorial districts of Cross River, or as it is commonly referred to, the Greater Calabar district, which includes Calabar Municipality, Calabar South, Bakassi, Biase, Akpabuyo, Odukpani, and Akamkpa LGAs. There is also the Qua community in Calabar, which speaks Ejagham. The main Ejagham group occupies mostly the Greater Calabar areas of Calabar Municipality, Odukpani, Biase and Akamkpa sections of Cross River State.[citation needed]
There are also the Yakurr /Agoi/Bahumono ethnic groups in Yakurr and Abi LGA, while the Mbembe are predominantly found in Obubra LGA. Further up the core northern part of the state are several sub-dialectical groups, among which are Etung, Olulumo, Ofutop, Nkim/Nkum, Abanajum, Nseke and Boki in both Ikom, Etung and Boki LGAs. Also, the Yala/Yache, Igede, Ukelle, Ekajuk, Mbube, Bette, Bekwarra and Utukwang people are found in Ogoja, Yala, Obudu, Obanliku and Bekwarra LGAs. The Yala are a subgroup of the Idoma nation, part of the Yala LGA’s subgroups are the Igede speaking people believed to have migrated from the Oju part of Benue State, who migrated from Ora, in Edo North.[citation needed]
In Cross River North, Bekwarra is one of the most widely spoken language.[26] It is understood by other tribes in the district. This language along with Efik and Ejagham is used for news broadcast in the state owned radio and TV stations.[citation needed]
Cross River State epitomises the nation’s linguistic and cultural plurality and it is important to note that, in spite of the diversity of dialects, all the Indigenous languages in the state have common linguistic roots as Niger-Congo languages. Finally, the State serves as the venue of the largest carnival in Africa.[27][28]
The majority of Cross Riverians are predominantly Christian with minorities practicing different ethnic indigenous religions. The Catholic Church includes the Archdiocese of Calabar (1934) with 51 parishes [2] under Archbishop Joseph Effiong Ekuwem (2013) [3] and the suffragan diocese of Ogoja (1938) [4] with 79 parishes under Bishop Donatus Edet Akpan (2017). [5] The Anglican Province of the Niger Delta includes the Diocese of Calabar led by Bishop Nneoyi O. Egbe. [6]
The Cross River State Christmas Festival – 1 December to 31 December annually[31]
The Cross River State Carnival Float – 26 and 27 December yearly
The Yakurr Leboku Yam festival – 28 August annually
The Calabar Boat Regata
Anong Bahumono Festival which is held in Anong Village, during which different cultural dances are showcased, including Ikpobin (acclaimed to be the most entertaining dance in the state), Ekoi, Obam, Emukei and Eta[32]
Ediba Bahumono Festival which is held in Ediba Village every last Saturday in the month of July
Bekwarra, Obudu, Obanliku, Igede New yam festival which is held every 1st Saturday of September every year.
From the soaring plateaus of the mountain tops of Obanliku to the Rain forests of Afi, from the Waterfalls of Agbokim and Kwa to the spiralling ox-bow Calabar River which provides sights and images of the Tinapa Business Resort, Marina Resort, Calabar Residency Museum and the Calabar Slave Park along its course, there is always a thrilling adventure awaiting the eco-tourist visiting Cross River State.[33]
Other tourist attractions are the Ikom Monoliths (a series of volcanic-stone monoliths of unknown age), the Mary Slessor Tomb, Calabar Drill Monkey Sanctuary, Cross River National Park, Afi Mountain walkway canopy, Kwa Falls, Agbokim waterfalls, Tinapa Business Resort, Mono railway and the annual Calabar Carnival that takes place during the Christmas period.
Cross River State can be accessed by air through the Margaret Ekpo International Airport at Calabar. There are daily flights to Calabar from Lagos and Abuja serviced by airlines such as Air peace Airlines, Ibom Air Airlines and recently Cally Air, operated by Aero Contractors which worked for about 5 months in 2021 and at the start of 2022, it stopped operation.
The Cross River state-owned airline, Cally Air, might have run aground after two years of operations and operational debt in excess of N900 million to its technical partner, Aero Contractors.[34]
Education started with mother tongue education. Presently, a lot of schools in the state for educative learning in the society.[35] The Tertiary educational institutions in the State includes:
A4 north from Calabar via Ikom and Ogoja to Benue State,
A343 (as part of TAH8: Trans-African Highway 8 Lagos-Mombasa) west from A4 at Mbok Junction as the Ngulya Mbok Rd and Iyahe Rd to Ebonyi State as the Ogoja-Abakaliki Rd,
A4-1 west from A4 at Odukpani Junction as the Ndom Nkim Esuk Odot Rd west across Cross River at Ayadeghe to Akwa Ibom.
the Oju-Alebo Rd north from A343 at Iyahe to Benue State as the Iyahe-Ewango-Oju Rd,
the Ikum Wula Rd northeast from A4 at Ikom as the Obudu-Ikom Rd to Obudu,
the Ranch Rd east from Obudu as the Vande Ikya-Abanliko Rd and the Akanliko-Ngale Rd,
the Amachi-Ndeokpai Rd west from A4 at Ndeokpai across Cross River by ferry at Ikot Okpora to Abia State at Ewe as the Arochukwu-Akampa-Odukpani-Calabar Rd.
Waterways:
Calabar is a major port, with navigable waterways on Cross River.
The state government is led by a democratically elected governor who works closely with members of the state house of assembly. The capital city of the state is Calabar.[38]
The governor of each state is selected using a modified two-round system. To be elected in the first round, a candidate must receive the plurality of the vote and over 25% of the vote in at least two -third of the State local government Areas. If no candidate passes threshold, a second round will be held between the top candidate and the next candidate to have received a plurality of votes in the highest number of local government Areas.[39]
The state is the primary and ancestral home of the Ijaw people’s, from where migration took place to other Ijaw settlements. The languages of the Ijaw (Ogbia, Nembe, Epie, Ijaw) are widely spoken in Bayelsa State, along with Isoko and Urhobo.[14] The state is also the ancestral home of the Urhobo people in the Sagbama local government area.[15]
As a state in the oil-rich Niger Delta, Bayelsa State’s economy is dominated by the petroleum industry.[20][21] The state is the site of Oloibiri Oilfield, where oil was first discovered in Nigeria, and as of 2015 the state was estimated to produce 30-40% of the country’s oil.[22][23] The state has the largest gas reservoir (18 trillion cubic feet) in Nigeria.[24] Though being the site of one of the largest crude oil and natural gas deposits in the country contributes to local economic development, the state remains plagued by rampant poverty as well as pollution stemming from oil spills.[25][26][27]
During the 20th century, demanding a new, majority-Ijaw state to be drawn in the Niger Delta Region became common. Between 1941 and 1956, numerous Ijaw nationalist organizations supportive of an Ijaw-majority state in Southern Nigeria were founded. Isaac Adaka Boro, a prominent Ijaw rights activist during the 1960s who was born in Oloibiri, attempted to proclaim a “Niger Delta Peoples Republic” in 1966.[28][29][30] Bayelsa State was created out of Rivers State on 1 October 1996[31] by the Sani Abacha‘s military government. Its name was derived from the first few letters of the names of the major local government areas from which it was formed: Brass LGA (BALGA), Yenagoa LGA (YELGA) and Sagbama LGA (SALGA).[32]
On 20 November 1999, the Nigerian military committed what is now referred to as the Odi massacre. The death toll remains disputed to this day, though Nnimmo Bassey, executive director of Environmental Rights Action, claims that nearly 2500 civilians were killed.[33][34]
In response to environmental degradation in the state caused by the oil industry, movements such as the “Rise for Bayelsa[35]” campaign have emerged to push for protecting the local water supply.[36] In 2019, the Bayelsa State government launched the first formal inquiry into the crisis of oil pollution in the state.[37][38]
Bayelsa State has one of the largest crude oil and natural gas deposits in Nigeria.[39][40] As a result, petroleum production is substantial in the state. Even though Bayelsa State is well-endowed with natural resources, the state “enjoys very minimal dividends from its oil wealth due to the structural inequities in the national revenue allocation system in the practice of fiscal federalism in the country”.[41]
Bayelsa has a riverine and estuarine setting.[42] Many communities are almost (and in some cases) surrounded by water, making them inaccessible by road. The state is home to the Edumanom Forest Reserve, in June 2008 the last known site for chimpanzees in the Niger Delta.[43]
Bayelsa has a tropical monsoon climate with yearly temperature of 28.64 °C (83.55 °F) and it is -0.82% lower than Nigeria’s averages. The state typically receives about 241.52 millimeters (9.51 inches) of precipitation and has 296.16 rainy days (81.14% of the time) annually.[45]
The Bayelsa region experiences tropical monsoon weather. All year long, there are high temperatures and a lot of rain. In Bayelsa, the average annual temperature is 56 degrees, and there are roughly 675 inches of rain each year. With an average humidity of 82% and a UV-index of 6, it is dry for 47 days out of the year.[48]
This is a common annual problem in Bayelsa because it is located on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. The rise of seawater is the major cause. The flooding has affected many communities, properties and human lives.[51] Almost all areas in Bayelsa state are affected by flooding but Ekeremor, Southern Ijaw, Sagbama, Kolokuma/Opokuma and Yenagoa areas of Bayelsa state are more prone to flooding as it affects these areas yearly.[52] Poor town planning is another major cause of flooding in Bayelsa State.[53]
As of August 2022, the state was stricken with a flood, displacing over 1.3 million people and destroying livestock and properties.
This is one of the major environmental issues in Bayelsa State due to the activities of major oil companies.[54]Oil spillage has affected farmlands, aquatic life and the health of the people.[55] Almost every day, Udengs Eradiri is informed of another oil spill in Bayelsa state, in the Niger Delta.
He said Bayelsa used to be green, you could go to a farm or go fishing and have a very impressive harvest. You would spend hours in the water and have a handful of fish. Today, he added, you can spend the whole day without catching a glimpse of a fish.[56]
Another major environmental issue in Bayelsa state is air pollution (SOOT). Today, many people in Bayelsa state lament that they cannot breathe due to the exposure of emissions of soot, a hazardous black amorphous carbon that has almost completely polluted the air in the areas.[49]
However, stakeholders in the affected areas had in 2018 reportedly initiated a campaign with the common refrain; “Save Rivers from this soot of death”, in the Rivers state region.[56]
Major roads include the Isaac Adaka Boro Expressway 17 km north from Yenagoa to join A2 the Elele-Alimini-Patani East-West Rd east to Rivers State at Mbiama and northwest across the Forçados River to Delta State by the 850 m bridge (2014) at Patani.
Waterways are essential for transport as many communities are not accessible by road.
Bayelsa Airport on Wilberforce Island opened in 2019, with international flights approved in 2021.[59]
HRM Edmund Daukoru, Nigerian Minister of State for Energy and was Secretary General of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries in 2006[65]
Tamara Eteimo also known by her stage name Tamara from Angiama, Southern Ijaw local government of Bayelsa state. She is a Nigerian R&B singer-songwriter and actress.[71]
Due to massive overseas scholarship programs implemented by the old Rivers State in the 1970s and recent Bayelsa State governments, large numbers of Bayelsa professionals reside in Europe and North America. This is part of the general brain-drain trend affecting many African communities.[89]
The state government is led by a democratically elected governor who works closely with members of the state House of Assembly. The Capital city of the state is Yenagoa.[94]
The electoral system of Bayelsa state is selected using a modified two-round system. To be elected in the first round, a candidate must receive the plurality of the vote and over 25% of the vote in at least two-thirds of the State’s local government Areas. If no candidate passes the threshold, a second round will be held between the top candidate and the next candidate to have received a plurality of votes in the highest number of local government Areas.[94]
Modern-day Akwa Ibom State has been inhabited by various ethnic groups for hundreds of years, primarily the closely related Ibibio, Annang, and Oron peoples in the North-East, North-West, and Southern zones of the state, respectively.[11]
Economically, Akwa Ibom State is based around the production of crude oil and natural gas as highest oil-producing state in the country.[12] Key minor industries involve agriculture as the state has substantial cocoyam, yam, and plantain crops along with fishing and heliciculture. Despite its vast oil revenues, Akwa Ibom has the seventeenth highestHuman Development Index in the country in large part due to years of systemic corruption.[13][14][15]
Akwa-Ibom State’s economy is based on the production of crude oil and natural gas. It produces the most oil of any state in the country.[16] It includes the following oil- producing Local Government Areas: Ibeno, Mbo, and Eastern Obolo.[17]
Key minor industries are based on agriculture; the state has substantial cocoyam, yam, and plantain crops, along with fishing and heliciculture.
“There are 20 languages spoken as first languages in Akwa Ibom State.”[21] However, comparing different sources show there are slightly over 20 languages. They are as follows (in alphabetical order) with the LGAs in which they are spoken:
Ibibio – Etinan, Ikono, Ikot Abasi, Itu, Mkpat Enin, Nsit Atai, Nsit-Ubium, Onna, Uruan and Uyo LGAs.
Ibino (Ibọnọ) – Ibeno LGA
Ibuoro – Ikono and Itu LGAs
Idere – Itu LGA
Igbo – Ika LGA
Ika – Ika LGA
Iko – Eastern Obolo LGA
Ilue – Oron LGA
Itu Mbon Uso – Ikono and Itu LGAs
Iwerre – Ini LGA
Nkari – Ini and Ikono LGA
Obolo (Andoni) – Eastern Obolo and Ibeno LGAs
Okobo – Okobo LGA
Oro – Oron LGA
Uda – Mbo LGA
One research however claims to “have identified just about 10 languages”,[22] claiming that some languages are dialects of others, though the criteria for classification as dialects is not clearly stated.
In the pre-colonial period, what is now Akwa Ibom State was divided into various city-states like the Ibom Kingdom and Akwa Akpa before they later became a British protectorate in 1884 as a part of the Oil Rivers Protectorate.[23] Prior to the British colonization, no central government had existed among the people of what is now Akwa Ibom State. The various ethnic peoples were largely organized into clan communities, based on kinship and relations.
Several Scottish missionaries went to Calabar in 1848, and Ibono in 1887. The British government did not attempt to establish more control over the area until 1904. In that year, they organized the Enyong Division, encompassing the area of the current state of Akwa Ibom, with headquarters at Ikot Ekpene, a predominately Annang city. Noted Africanist Kaanan Nair, noted this city as the cultural and political capital of the Annang and Ibibio peoples. The greater Southeast was largely dominated by the majority Igbo people. The creation of Enyong Division encouraged collaboration among the numerous minority ethnic groups in the area. They created the Ibibio Welfare Union, later renamed Ibibio State Union. This social organization was first established as a local development and improvement forum for educated African persons and groups who in 1929 were still excluded from the colonial administration. It was dominated by British colonists and their appointees.[citation needed][24]
In the early 1900s, the British actually gained formal control of the area before incorporating the protectorate (now renamed the Niger Coast Protectorate) into the Southern Nigeria Protectorate which later merged into British Nigeria; after the merger, much of modern-day Akwa Ibom became a centre of anti-colonial resistance during the Women’s War and political activism through the Ibibio State Union.[25]
After independence in 1960, the area of now-Akwa Ibom was a part of the post-independence Eastern Region until 1967 when the region was split and the area became part of the South-Eastern State. Less than two months afterwards, the Igbo-majority former Eastern Region attempted to secede as the state of Biafra; in the three-year long Nigerian Civil War, now-Akwa Ibom was hard-fought over in the prelude to the Invasion of Port Harcourt while people from Akwa Ibom were persecuted by the Biafran forces as they were mainly non-Igbos.[26] At the war’s end and the reunification of Nigeria, the South-Eastern State was reformed until 1976 when it was renamed Cross River State.
This division resulted in the creation of the state of Akwa Ibom, Uyo was chosen as the state capital in order to encourage development in all regions of the state.[28]
Akwa Ibom has a tropical monsoonclimate (Classification: Am) and is 42.58 meters (139.7 feet) above sea level. The city’s average annual temperature is -0.99% lower than Nigeria’s averages at 28.47 °C (83.25 °F). 342.56 millimeters (13.49 inches) of precipitation and 294.37 rainy days (80.65% of the time) are typical annual totals for Akwa Ibom.[29][30]
The Akwa Ibom region regularly has tropical monsoons. All year long, there are high temperatures and a lot of rain. The region of Akwa Ibom has an average yearly temperature of 60 degrees and 672 inches of precipitation. The average humidity is 80% and the UV-index is 7. It is dry for only 52 days of the year.[31]
The climate of Akwa Ibom is tropical with significant rainfall and a short dry season.[32][33][34]
Politics in Akwa Ibom State are dominated by the three main ethnic groups: the Ibibio, Annang, and Oro. Of these three, the Ibibio remain the majority and have held sway in the state since its creation.
The current part of Akwa Ibom State that was within the former Calabar Kingdom, was the first site of Western education in Nigeria. The Hope Waddell Training Institute was founded at Calabar in 1895, and the Methodist Boys’ High School, Oron in 1905. Other top schools, such as the Catholic seminaries Holy Family College at Abak and Regina Coeli College in Essene, were also soon founded.
Some educational institutes in the state today are:
Hilda Baci, known for breaking the Guinness World Record for longest cooking marathon.[48]
Nathaniel Bassey is a Nigerian gospel music minister and RCCG Pastor from Uyo L.G.A, in Akwa Ibom state.
Moses Bliss, is a Nigerian gospel singer, worship leader and songwriter.
Bnxn, Daniel Etiese Benson (born 14 May 1997), known professionally as Bnxn (pronounced as Benson) and formerly known as Buju, is a Nigerian Afro-fusion singer, songwriter and record producer.
Obong Ufot Ekaette, secretary to the Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria from 1999 to 2007 under President Olusegun Obasanjo[53]
Dominic Ekandem first cardinal in English-speaking West Africa. First Nigerian Cardinal to qualify as a candidate to the papacy.[54]
Senator (Engr.) Chris Ekpenyong Former deputy governor of Akwa Ibom State in the Victor Attah administration and former Senator representing Akwa Ibom North-West Senatorial District in the 9th Assembly.[55]
Obong Akpan Isemin, elected governor of Akwa Ibom State in Nigeria from January 1992 to November 1993 during the Nigerian Third Republic[citation needed]
Professor Okon Uya was briefly chairman of the National Electoral Commission of Nigeria (NECON), appointed by President Ibrahim Babangida after the presidential elections of 12 June 1993 had been annulled and his predecessor Humphrey Nwosu dismissed.[73]
The State government is led by a democratically elected governor who works closely with the state house of assembly. The capital city of the state is Uyo.[74]
The electoral system of each state is selected using a modified two-round system. To be elected in the first round, a candidate must receive the plurality of the vote and over 25% of the vote in at least two -third of the State local government Areas. If no candidate passes threshold, a second round will be held between the top candidate and the next candidate to have received a plurality of votes in the highest number of local government Areas.[75]
Notable places.
Four points by Sheraton Ikot Ekpene. It’s a hotel located at the heart of Ikot Ekpene town. Four Points by Sheraton Ikot Ekpene has an outdoor swimming pool, fitness center, a terrace and restaurant in Ikot Ekpene, with free WiFi access as well.
Akwa Ibom state has one of Nigerians international stadiums situated in Uyo which was named after the former Governor Godswill Akpabio. The stadium has hosted both local and international matches of the Nigeria football team.[76]
With a population of 5,198,716 as of the 2006 census and 7,234,973 in 2023, Rivers State is the 8th most populous state in Nigeria.[9] Rivers State is a diverse state that is home to many ethnic groups: Ijaw, Ogoni, Ikwerre, Ogba, Ekpeye, and Kalabari. The state is particularly noted for its linguistic diversity, with 30 indigenous languages and dialects being said to be spoken in Rivers State, these include Ekpeye, Ikwerre, Ijaw (Okrika, Ibani, Kalabari) and Ogoni.[10] Rivers State is the 25th largest state by area,[11] and its geography is dominated by the numerous rivers that flow through it, including the Bonny River.[12]
The economy of Rivers State is dominated by the state’s booming petroleum industry. Although the rise of the oil industry has led to increased revenue for the state government, mismanagement and corruption have prevented the state from rapid development and meaningfully tackling poverty.[13]
Rivers State is considered one of the fastest-growing states in terms of modern infrastructure and urbanization in the country.
In the early days of the colonial period, several protection treaties were signed between various indigenous communities and the British colonial government[citation needed]. Between 1941 and 1952, agitation for the creation of Rivers Province began with the formation of the Ijo Rivers People’s League. By 1953, the Council of Rivers Chiefs was birthed as a replacement body for the League, the same year, another organization, the Calabar Ogoja Rivers (COR) State Movement became existent.
The Council of Rivers Chiefs was later renamed in 1954 to Rivers Chiefs and People’s Congress and in 1956, the organization became known as the Rivers Chiefs People’s Conference.[16] Until 1958, hopes of an independent state resonated with the region and lingered consistently in the minds of its natives. During the constitutional conference that year, the country’s nationhood was affirmed while an agreement was reached on some measures to mitigate the fears of the ethnic minorities in the area. Around this time, the COR State Movement had broken away to press their case. Thereafter, the British launched a commission led by Sir Henry Willink to look into the misgivings of these autochthons. The Willink Commission initiated the conception of the Niger Delta Development Board (NDDB). The purpose was to tackle the problems of underdevelopment, however, this failed to rise to the expectations of the masses. After much discontent, some of the people attempted to take the extralegal route to achieve their goals.
In February 1966, Isaac Boro, Sam Owonaro and Nottingham Dick alongside their supporters proclaimed a “Delta People’s Republic”. The rebellion persisted for twelve days but was resisted by the Federal and the old Eastern Nigeria government. On 27 May 1967, under the administration of General Yakubu Gowon, Decree No. 14 was issued, allowing the creation of Rivers State. From then on, complaints about political marginalisation, environmental degradation and economic pauperisation remained among the Ijaw groups,[17] such that a separate Bayelsa State was carved out of Rivers State by the military government of Sani Abacha on 1 October 1996 and Omuma Local Government Area of Rivers State was created on the same day to include communities such as Umuru in Ofeh.[18]
Rivers State is a predominantly low-lying pluvial state in southern Nigeria, located in the eastern part of the Niger Delta on the oceanward extension of the Benue Trough.[19] The inland part of the state consists of tropical rainforest, and towards the coast, the typical Niger Delta environment features many mangrove swamps. Rivers State has a total area of 11,077 km2 (4,277 sq mi), making it the 26th largest state in Nigeria.[20] Surrounding states are Anambra for four km, Imo for about 122 km), and Abia for 87 km (54 miles, partly across the Imo River) to the north, Akwa Ibom to the east across the Imo River and Bayelsa and Delta to the west across the Niger River for about 50 km. On the south, it is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean. Its topography ranges from flat plains, with a network of rivers to tributaries.[citation needed]
Ogoni Climate activists and others in Port Harcourt protesting environmental degradation in 2015.
Rainfall is generally seasonal, variable, as well as heavy, and occurs between March and October through November.[citation needed] The wet season peaks in July, lasting more than 290 days. The only dry months are January and February having little to no effect.
Total annual rainfall decreases from about 4,700 mm (185 in) on the coast, to about 1,700 mm (67 in) in the extreme north. It is 4,698 mm (185 in) at Bonny along the coast and 1,862 mm (73 in) at Degema. For Port Harcourt, temperatures throughout the year are relatively constant with little variation throughout the seasons. Average temperatures are typically between 25 and 28 °C (77 and 82 °F). Some parts of the state still receive up to 150 mm (6 in) of rainfall during the dry period. Relative humidity rarely dips below 60% and fluctuates between 90% and 100% for most of the year.
The land surface of Rivers State can be divided into three zones: freshwater swamps, mangrove swamps and coastal sand ridges. The freshwater zone extends northwards from the mangrove swamps. This land surface is generally less than 20m above sea level. As a lower Niger floodplain, it contains a greater silt and clay foundation and is more susceptible to perennial inundation by river floods. The floodplain’s total thickness rises to about 45m in the northeast and over 9m in the beach ridge barrier zones to the southwest.
On coastal sand ridges, the soils are mostly sandy or sandy loams. Various crops are supported including coconut, oil palm, raffia palm and cocoyam. The drier upland region of Rivers State covers 61% of landmass while the riverine areas, with a relief range of 2m to 5m, take up 39%.
Due to its geographical location, Rivers State has always played an important role in the natural history of Nigeria, having been found to host a vast array of wildlife and plants. Its tropical rainforests are home to more species than all other local biomes combined thanks to its climate and canopy structure. Some of the upland forested areas have seen disruption from human activity, impacting negatively on the biodiversity and ecological functions of natural habitats. In most places, the dominant vegetation usually consists of Elaeis guineensis which has the highest productivity amongst all recognized oleaginous crops.
The riverine part of the state has three hydro-vegetation zones such as beach ridge, salt water and fresh water. Each zone has its characteristics and composition, with the freshwaters encompassing the upper and lower floodplains of the Niger Delta.
Over the period from 1991 to 2006, the total population of Rivers State increased by close to 3 million people. The last official census showed that 5,198,716 people were living in the state, of whom 2,673,026 were male and 2,525,690 were female. Adults and adolescents aged 15 to 64 years accounted for 61% of the population in the state. Children below the age of 15 accounted for 36% of the population, and those aged 65 years and above, another 3%. Port Harcourt and Obio-Akpor had the highest number of inhabitants of any local government area, while Ogu–Bolo and Omuma had the lowest. The total area of the state was 11,077 km2 (4,277 sq mi) and the density was 635.89 inhabitants per square kilometre (1,646.9/sq mi).
According to the world population review[24] (Population of cities in Nigeria), the capital city of Rivers state, Port Harcourt is ranked 4th on the list.
Rivers State has a higher literacy rate compared to most states in the South South geopolitical zone. Its male literacy as of 2006 was 52.3% while the female literacy rate was 47.7%.[25] In the same survey, it ranked as 26th most extensive and the 6th most populous of all the states of Nigeria. A 2015 estimate put the number of residents of Rivers State at over 7 million, nearly triple the number recorded in 1991.
Rivers State has a rich cultural heritage, and its people are friendly and known for their hospitality. The state has 23 distinct ethnic groups including Ekpeye, Ogba, Kalabari, Ikwerre and Ogoni amongst others. It is on record that Port Harcourt is the second biggest commercial, agriculture and busiest airport & seaports in Nigeria. Rivers state has two seaports situated in Port Harcourt and Onne.[27]
As a multi-cultural, multi-tribal region, Rivers State has much to offer in its diversity of people. The area that makes up the modern state has been inhabited in one way or the other since the last year of the first millennium. The earliest known settled communities in what is now Rivers State include the Riverine Ijaw; Ogoni, Ikwerre people and other Igboid groups on the mainland.[28] Today, over 26 distinct groups are recognized by the Rivers State government, each with its own language, lifestyle, and cultural heritage.
Multilingualism is a part of everyday life for the population of Rivers State and most of Nigeria. English, inherited from colonial rule is common and widely spoken in various forms in different localities. Some indigenous Riverians are also bilingual, speaking a mixture of English or Pidgin English with one of the native languages. This is partly due to the frequent exposure of the younger generations to foreign dialects, especially in the country’s largest cities.[29] Excluding Pidgin, all other ones spoken in the state belong to either Benue–Congo or Ijoid and Ogoni Languages within the Niger–Congo language family. The Benue–Congo is subdivided into Cross River, Igboid, and Edoid groups. The Ijoid languages are predominant around the creek belt, Ogoni languages – about 5 of them are spoken across the southern parts of the state, Igboid group of language is spoken in the Northern Areas of the Rivers State.[29]
Igboid language (Igbo), Ogoni languages (Khana, Baan)
Port Harcourt
Central Delta language (Obulom), Ijoid Languages (Ijaw, Kalabari, Bille, Kirike), Ogoni languages (Khana, Eleme, Gokana, Baan), Igboid languages (Ikwerre, Igbo)
Rivers State has maintained its importance as a leading supplier of wealth to the nation for centuries. In 2021, the state ranked 2nd nationwide with a gross domestic product (GDP) of $51.529 billion and a per capita income of $5,949 (PPP).[4]
The state is famous for its vast reserves of crude oil and natural gas. It was perhaps the richest and most important section of the African zone of the British Empire. Rivers State has two major oil refineries, two major seaports, airports, and various industrial estates spread across the land. More than 60% of the country’s output of crude oil is produced in the state. Other natural resources found within its boundaries are silica, glass sand and clay.[31]
Prior to the discovery of oil in commercial quantity in 1951, Agriculture was the primary occupation of the people of Rivers State. Around the 19th century when the Industrial Revolution reached its peak in England, the area was then referred to as Oil Rivers Protectorate, this was due to its abundant palm oil and kernel which basically constituted the main revenue source of the country. In a sample survey carried out by the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, about 40% of the rural inhabitants were committed to farming in 1983. Rivers State is one of the leading states in the production of yam, cassava, cocoyam, maize, rice and beans. About 39% (760,000 hectares) of the state’s total land mass, particularly in the upland area, is suitable for cultivation. Major cash crops produced are oil palm products, rubber, coconut, raffia palm and jute. Other crops grown for food include vegetables, melon, pineapples, mango, pepper, banana and plantain. The fishing industry is an important sector in Rivers State. Besides being lucrative, fishing is also a favourite pastime activity. There are approximately 270 species of fish existing; with many artisanal fishermen in the riverine areas. The state provides valuable seafood such as crabs, oysters, shrimps and sea snails among others. Vertebrates like birds, mammals and reptiles are also found in the region.[31]
Energy, and especially electricity is the key factor for economic growth. Rivers State has one of the nation’s highest per capita energy consumption rates. As of 2012, it had a power generation capacity of 400 megawatts, a significant improvement over a meagre 30 megawatts during the late nineties.[32] Its energy sector is protected by the government through legislation and funding. It is overseen by the ministries of Power, Energy and Natural Resources. The state’s oil-refining capacity is the biggest in the country, with more than 340,000 barrels of crude oil per day.
There’s a vast untapped potential in the state for solar power. Interest in solar energy has been increasing but not much has been invested. Up to now, energy production has been insufficient to meet demand, resulting in frequent power outages, slow manufacturing and low business performance.
Transportation within Rivers State is mainly land and water-based. The industry has the Ministry of Transport as its chief regulating body. Apart from roads and waterways, there are functional airdromes that provide out-of-state transport. The seaports contain harbors where ships can dock and transfer people or cargo to or from land.
Federal highways are A2 the Elele-Alimini-Patani East-West Rd from Elele to Bayelsa State at Mbiama, A3 east as the Port Harcourt Enugu Expressway to Abia State and A231 north from A3 in Port Harcourt 42 km via Igwuruta and Omagwa to A2 in Elele.
the Abua-Ogbia Rd north to Ahoada where the Ogura-Omoku Rd continues to Imo State,
the Rumuji-Mpakurche Rd northwest from Port Harcourt to the Rumuji-Elele Alimini Rd,
the Ulakwo Rd northeast from Olakwo to Imo State,
the Eberi-Obiga Rd north from Owaza to Abia State,
the Asa-Akwere-Obohia Rd east from Owaza to Abia State, and
the Alese Rd southeast from Port Harcourt to the Ikot Akan-Deyor Chara Rd across the Imo River at Kalaoko to Akwa Ibom State.
Taxicabs, buses and ferries dominate public transport. They are usually inexpensive and are often used for multi-passenger pick-ups. Commercial vehicles in Port Harcourt maintain sky blue, white and sky blue livery. Operating without these government-approved colours is punishable with a fine of up to ₦10,000.[33]
The 1067 mm Cape Gauge Eastern Railway Line north from Port Harcourt to Aba in Abia State, built 1913–16, restored 2009–15.
Both domestic and international flights are available from Port Harcourt International Airport. Airlines such as Lufthansa, Air France, Qatar Air, Ethiopian Airlines, Med-View, Air Peace and Cronos link the state to destinations including Frankfurt, Paris, Lagos and Malabo. Passengers can easily get a taxi or rental car at the authorized vehicle area. Companies like Europcar, Avis and Hertz have offices near the airport. In addition, the Port Harcourt Air Force Base is located in the state capital. It gained popularity as a commercial destination due to the closure of the international airport. After that airport reopened, most airlines abandoned the base. However, it still has some destinations since the airport is closer to the centre than the main airport.
Seaports handle much more diversified import cargo activities than airports. The Port of Onne is one of the largest and busiest seaports in the country. Its mobile harbour cranes are one of the biggest in Africa, with a lifting capacity of 208 metric tonnes. Another important seaport is the Port of Port Harcourt. It was the second-largest port in Nigeria in the 1950s. In 1954, it cleared about $54 million worth of imports and exports, while the shipping facilities at Calabar cleared $11 million worth of goods.[34]
The majority of Riverians obtain their water for household use from vendors. There are also those who extract their water from private boreholes and wells and incur costs for the investment, maintenance, spare parts, pumping, and in some cases treating the water. Several others receive their domestic water from rainwater catchments, nearby streams or rivers. In the oil-bearing communities, many residents have easy access to basic infrastructure systems, although, most of the facilities are nonfunctional.[35]
In large urban localities such as Port Harcourt and Obio-Akpor, Port Harcourt Water Corporation handles the provision of urban water supply and wastewater management services for 15% of the population. A number of towns and villages with iron-contaminated H2O have resorted to treating one chemical contaminant with another. Most of the water collection in low-income urban residential areas is done by women.[35] In 2008, NDHS reported that 26% of adult females collect drinking water more than adult male counterparts at 21%.[35]
In order to improve access to safe, reliable, affordable, and sustainable water supply services, USAID, through its Sustainable Water and Sanitation in Africa program collaborated with the Ministry of Water Resources and Rural Development from April 2013 to June 2015.[36]
The Rivers State government consists of elected representatives and appointed officials. The state government has executive and legislative branches, with an independent judiciary. At the local level, elected officials are responsible for local government areas.
The governor of the state is selected using a modified two-round system. To be elected in the first round, a candidate must receive the plurality of votes and over 25% of the vote in at least two-thirds of the state local government areas. If no candidate passes the threshold, a second round will be held between the top candidate and the next candidate to have received a plurality of votes in the highest number of local government areas.[citation needed]
The executive branch is headed by the Governor, assisted by the Deputy Governor,[37] both elected for a term of 4 years (maximum of 2 terms). The governor appoints commissioners responsible for each of the ministries and appoints the heads of parastatals and the state-owned bodies with specific regulatory or administrative duties. In some cases, a governor may be replaced or removed for example, through death, impeachment or if an election is annulled by a competent court of law or by a two-thirds majority of the House of Assembly. The incumbent governor is Siminalayi Fubara a member of the People Democratic Party, who heads the council of Rivers State. Fubara was sworn in on 29 May 2023. He is the 7th Democratic governor of the state and the 16th overall governor of River State[38]
The legislative authority in Rivers State is held by the state House of Assembly, which is made up of elected representatives from all constituencies of the state. Its functions at the state level are relative to those of the National Assembly at the federal level, creating laws for the good governance of the state, as well as acting as a check and balance on the powers and actions of the state’s Chief Executive. The House of Assembly consists of three times the total number of seats which the state has in the House of Representatives.
The judicial branch of the state government has sole authority and responsibility for the interpretation and application of the state’s laws as well as the adjudication of disputes or controversies.[39] It consists of eight courts: the High Court of Justice, the Magistrates Courts, the Customary Courts, the Juveniles Courts, the Revenue Courts, the Sanitation Courts, the Mobile Courts and Ports Related Offences Courts. It is governed mainly by the Chief Judge of the High Court of Justice. There are about 26 serving judges in the High Court of Justice, which comprises 10 Judicial Divisions including Port Harcourt, Ahoada, Degema, Nchia, Bori, Omoku, Isiokpo, Okrika, Okehi, and Oyigbo.[40]
Elections are conducted every 4 years in which Riverian voters will directly elect 16 representatives to the Nigerian National Assembly. Those chosen are grouped into 3 senators representing Rivers South East, Rivers West, Rivers East and 13 representatives representing Andoni/Opobo/Nkoro, Obio/Akpor, Oyigbo/Tai/Eleme, Port Harcourt II, Etche/Omuma, Asari-Toru/Akuku-Toru, Okrika/Ogu–Bolo, Khana/Gokana, Port Harcourt I, Ahoada West/Ogba–Egbema–Ndoni, Abua–Odual/Ahoada East, Ikwerre/Emohua, Degema/Bonny. Since the advent of the Fourth Republic in 1999, the People’s Democratic Party has usually held a majority in both the Senate and the House of Representatives.[41]
Rivers State currently consists of 23 Local Government Areas (LGAs), all of which handle local administration, under an elected chairman. Each of the local government areas has its own administrative seat. They are:
As at 1999, the state had 2,805 government primary schools and 243 secondary schools. The secondary schools are concentrated mainly in LGA headquarters towns and in Port Harcourt.[citation needed]
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